By Amira Y. Badri and Hind Bushra Ahmed

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Background

The global refugee crisis continues to escalate, with over 123.2 million people forcibly displaced worldwide at the end of 2024 (UNHCR Global Report, 2024). Among these, women and children represent nearly half of all displaced persons and face disproportionate social and economic vulnerability. It is considered a decrease of 6% from the end of 2023, however, the number of displaced populations are likely to increase by the end of 2025, unless positive changes occur in the most affected countries, such as Sudan, Congo, and Ukraine.

In Sudan, the outbreak of war between the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) in April 2023 created one of Africa’s largest humanitarian crises (Amnesty International, 2024). In October 2023, Egypt had received over 310,000 Sudanese refugees, and by 2024, that number had risen to 1.2 million (UNHCR Sudan, 2024). Most refugees entered Egypt with little to no assets, facing barriers in housing, employment, and legal documentation. Women refugees, in particular, encounter gender-specific challenges—loss of family members, restricted access to formal work, social isolation, and economic dependency. Despite this, Sudanese refugee women in Egypt have demonstrated remarkable resilience by developing diverse livelihood strategies in the face of declining humanitarian assistance from the Egyptian and the UNHCR authorities.

It is crucial to understand how refugee women survive, what mechanisms they use, how they challenge the legal and economic realities, and what barriers they face, in order to shape effective humanitarian and development policies that promote self-reliance, dignity, and gender equity.

Policy research issue

A major issue scarcely researched are the struggles encountered by Sudanese refugees, particularly the women due to the forced displacement in Egypt. These challenges are associated with the basic mechanisms for maintaining livelihoods amid limited access to formal employment opportunities; financial and legal inclusion; skills training and market participation; and adequate humanitarian support. This situation undermines both gender equality and socioeconomic stability, not only for refugees but also for the vulnerable host communities. The absence of targeted livelihood support policies increases dependency on aid and restricts women’s contributions to local economies.

This research examines: the livelihood strategies employed by Sudanese refugee women in Cairo; the determinants influencing their economic choices; the role of social networks, NGOs, and government in supporting their livelihoods; and, the barriers that hinder sustainable economic self-reliance. The study is based on a purposive and snowball sampling of 15 small business owning refugee women age 20 to 50 years old. A qualitative content analysis guided by the frameworks of self-reliance and livelihood strategies is applied.

Livelihood Strategies

Many Sudanese women refugees depend largely on informal income-generating activities, these are four categories of activities, namely: selling Sudanese food and tea in neighborhood; handmade crafts such as small and medium sized handbags and table mates; producing Sudanese perfumes; and making accessories and children clothes.

Additionally, some women are providing domestic services such as cooking and cleaning, applying henna/tattoos for young women. Others are engaged in online customer service and translation.

The women believed that some determinants influence their livelihood choices, these include:

• Education and prior experience, where higher education correlates with better adaptability and chances;
• Access to social networks such as family, community groups, and diaspora support help in both material and human resources allocation;
• Legal and institutional barriers, mainly lack of work permits, awareness and accessibility to legal information, and absence of micro-credit services are considered as major obstacles for engaging in sustainable business;
• Further, in some cases, cultural adaptation, community and social networks play a vital role in strengthening or hindering selection of livelihood patterns.

Core challenges include

• Lack of employment opportunities for refugees in the formal labour market hinders their socioeconomic betterment;
• Limited skills transfer from Sudan, as skills may not align with Egypt’s job market;
• Lack of access to credit and micro-finance – banks require collateral, excluding refugees from financial systems;
• Low wages and exploitation – refugees experience long working hours, low payment, and unsafe conditions;
• Digital marketing gaps – inability to afford professional marketing tools or advertise effectively.

Women and human development empowerment

The displacement crisis has redefined gender roles within refugee households. Women have become primary breadwinners, assuming full responsibility for their families’ welfare. However, without adequate economic empowerment, they remain vulnerable to poverty, exploitation, and gender-based violence. Hence, empowering refugee women to earn sustainable incomes is directly linked to human development outcomes such as improved education for children, offering training to women, and reduced dependency on aid. Investing in refugee women’s skills and economic potential aligns with SDG5 (Gender Equality) and SDG8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), promoting inclusive development for both refugees and host communities.

Therefore, supporting women’s entrepreneurship skills will strengthen both community cohesion and socioeconomic self-resilience.

Policy and programme recommendations

1. Economic empowerment and financial inclusion

Establish microfinance and savings groups specifically for refugee women, supported by NGOs and Egyptian financial institutions. Create small-grant programmes for refugee women-led businesses. Also, for practicality, training in small-business leadership skills and basic financial elements are crucial for better management of women’s businesses ( (Muhammed, I and Saukat, B 2022). Further, integrated cooperatives are a successful poverty reduction approach that are applied in many African countries (Wanyama,F 2009) (Nkwede J, 2014) (Madzivhandila, T 2023) where refugees and local communities engage in multi-purpose productive and marketing cooperatives which sustain their capital and better the family well-being (Luna E; Cornaro E and Eder S (2025).

2. Legal and Institutional Reform

Simplify work permit and business registration procedures for refugees. Develop bilateral frameworks between UNHCR and the Egyptian government to formalise refugee entrepreneurship. Ensure refugees are protected under labour laws to prevent exploitation and to build trust with local communities. Renewal of the Egypt-Sudan Wadi-Nile agreement is required to be aligned in favour of the current situation of women refugees.

3. Skills Development and Training

Implementing vocational training programmes that are tailored to meet market needs is crucial for empowering refugees with the skills required to secure sustainable employment opportunities. For instance, offering courses in tailoring can equip individuals with the expertise to create clothing such as school uniforms that cater to specific preferences and trends in the local market. Similarly, providing training in digital marketing can enable refugees to promote their products or services effectively in the digital sphere, expanding their business outreach and customer base.

Moreover, incorporating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) training into vocational programmes can significantly enhance refugees’ employability by equipping them with essential digital skills. These skills are increasingly in demand across various industries and can open up new avenues for career advancement. By collaborating with local universities and training centers to certify refugees’ skills, the programmes can ensure that participants receive recognised credentials that validate their expertise and competence.

Overall, by aligning vocational training programmes with market needs and incorporating ICT training, women refugees can acquire the necessary skills to thrive in the workforce and contribute meaningfully to the economy. This collaborative approach not only benefits the individuals directly involved but also strengthens the local community by fostering a skilled and diverse workforce and enhancing gender equality.

4. Digital Marketing Support

It is suggested that to help refugee entrepreneurs, especially women, to sell their products online and reach a wider audience. One way is to offer free or discounted workshops on digital marketing, which can teach them how to promote their products online. Another idea is to connect them with Egyptian e-commerce start-ups, so they can work together and benefit from each other’s expertise. Additionally, supporting community markets and pop-up fairs can provide a physical space for refugee women to showcase and sell their products to local customers. These initiatives aim to empower refugee entrepreneurs and help them succeed in the online marketplace.

5. Integrated Humanitarian-Development Approach

Shift from short-term aid to long-term resilience programmes combining livelihood support, psycho-social care, and community integration. Foster public-private partnerships that employ refugee women in local industries. Enhance monitoring and evaluation frameworks to track livelihood outcomes and policy impact.

Conclusion

Sudanese refugee women in Egypt demonstrate strength and adaptability despite severe economic, legal, and social barriers. Yet, their potential remains underutilised due to systematic exclusion from formal employment, finance, and skills development. Therefore, a comprehensive human development in entrepreneurship is essential, one that emphasises self-reliance, financial inclusion, and gender-responsive planning. Empowering these women not only enhances their dignity and economic independence, but also contributes to Egypt’s economic and social stability, and enforces bilateral small trade agreements.

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